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Echinacea spp.

David L. Hoffmann B.Sc. (Hons), M.N.I.M.H.

Echinacea spp.
Compositeae
Names: Purple Coneflower
Habitat: Throughout North American prairies, plains, and open woodlands.
Part Used: The root.

Constituents:

• Echinacoside, in E. angustifolia but not E. purpurea. Research suggests that the echinacosides glycosides appear to be primary anti-microbial constituents in Echinacea. However there are many other biologically active substances present, and there is evidence that they work synergistically. The polysaccharides, for example, possess the best immune stimulating properties and are also antiviral.
• Unsaturated isobutyl amides, echinacin and others, in E. angustifolia and E. pallida.
• Polysaccharides; a heteroxylan and an arabinorhamnogalactan
• Polyacetylenes, at least 13 of which have been isolated. It has been postulated that these are artifacts formed during storage, since they are found in dried but not fresh roots of E. pallida.
• Essential oil, containing humulene, caryophyllene and its epoxide, germacrene D and methyl-p-hydroxycinnamate
• Miscellaneous; vanillin linolenic acid derivatives, a labdane derivative, alkanes and flavonoids and the alkaloids tussilagine and isotussilagine.

Note: Sesquiterpene esters which were originally identified in commercial samples of E. purpurea have since been shown to be due to the presence of an adulterant, Parthenium integrifolium L. (American Feverfew). It appears that this adulteration may be widespread in commercial samples.

Actions: Anti-microbial, immunomodulator, anti-catarrhal, alterative.

Indications: Echinacea is one of the primary remedies for helping the body rid itself of microbial infections. It is often effective against both bacterial and viral attacks, and may be used in conditions such as boils, septicaemia and similar infections. In conjunction with other herbs it may be used for any infection anywhere in the body. For example in combination with Yarrow or Bearberry it will effectively stop cystitis. It is especially useful for infections of the upper respiratory tract such as laryngitis, tonsillitis and for catarrhal conditions of the nose and sinus. In general it may be used widely and safely. The tincture or decoction may be used as a mouthwash in the treatment of pyorrhoea and gingivitis. It may be used as an external lotion to help septic sores and cuts. Much research is focusing upon this plant, providing important insights into its activity and potential uses. Glycosides from the roots have mild activity against Streptococci and Staphylococcus aureus. Echinacoside was the most active with about 6 mg being equivalent to one unit of penicillin. The tincture was able to reduce both the rate of growth and the rate of reproduction of Trichomonas vaginalis, and was found to be effective in halting the recurrence of Candida albicans infection. It seems to prevent infection and repair tissue damaged by infection, partially through inhibiting the activity of the enzyme hyaluronidase. The hyaluronidase system is a primary defense mechanism, involving connective "ground" substance, or hyaluronic acid, acting as a barrier against pathogenic organisms. Some pathogens activate an enzyme, hyaluronidase, which once activated destroys the integrity of the ground substance. This causes the barrier to become leaky, allowing pathogens to invade, attach themselves to exposed cells, penetrate the membrane and kill the cell. The result as an inflammatory infection. Echinacea inhibits the action of hyaluronidase by bonding with it in some way, resulting in a temporary increase in the integrity of the barrier. Fewer pathogens are able to stimulate the destruction of the ground substance. A range of constituents mediate this process, especially a complex polysaccharide called echinacin B. This anti-hyaluronidase action is involved in regeneration of connective tissue destroyed during infection and in the elimination of pathogenic organisms creating the infection. Purified polysaccharides prepared from Echinacea possess a strong activating force on the body's macrophage-mediated defense system. These macrophages initiate the destruction of pathogens and cancer cells. Echinacea activates macrophages by itself, independent of any effect with T-cells. A tumor-inhibiting principle has been found, a oncolytic lipid-soluble hydrocarbon from the essential oil. The echinacosides glycosides appear to be the primary `antibiotics', but there are many other active substances present which probably function synergistically. The polysaccharides possess the best immune stimulating properties and are also antiviral. Other constituents have been shown to possess good anti-tumor, bacteriostatic, and anesthetic activity.

This all points to the conclusion that its actions relate to immune system functioning on some level, helping deal with infections and stimulating the immune response. It activates the macrophages that destroy both cancerous cells and pathogens, increases the level of phagocytosis by raising levels of white blood cells such as the neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, and B lymphocytes. It also has an effect on properidin levels, indication an activation of the complement system.

Preparations & Dosage: Decoction: put 1-2 teaspoonfuls of the root in one cup of water and bring it slowly to boil. Let it simmer for 10-15 minutes. This should be drunk three times a day. Tincture: take 1-4 ml of the tincture three times a day. Echinacea is often, inappropriately, used as a daily `immune support' (whatever that is!). A quote from Dr. Daniel Mowrey's excellent review of Echinacea in Next Generation Herbal Medicine is pertinent here:

"Daily intake should be restricted to what is deemed necessary. During cold and flu season, two to four capsules per day is sufficient. In the presence of acute infection, that dosage may be increased, without danger, to more than 8 capsules. In the presence of chronic infections, such as chronic hepatitis, echinacea may be used continuously for several months. However, for the maintenance of a healthy immune system, echinacea is most wisely used periodically--a few weeks on, and a few weeks off, throughout the year. Echinacea is not a tonic in all aspects; granted that it has been observed to stabilize the production of neutrophils, such tonic action has not been observed on other immune factors, such as properdin production. In the absence of conclusive experimental findings, it is both safe and wise to assume that the constant, unremitting use of echinacea could be stressful on certain aspects of the immune system. During breaks, the immune system will adapt and increase in natural strength."

Elder - Black Elder, European Elder

© David L. Hoffmann B.Sc. (Hons), M.N.I.M.H.

Sambucus nigra
Caprifoliaceae
Names: Black Elder, European Elder.
Habitat: Europe and the British Isles, commonly growing in hedges.
Collection: The flowers are collected in spring and early summer and dried as rapidly as possible in the shade. The bark and berries are best collected in August and September.
Part Used: Bark, flowers, berries, leaves.

Constituents: Flowers

• Triterpenes including ursolic acid, 30-[[beta]]-hydroxyursolic acid, oleanolic acid, [[alpha]]- and[[beta]]-amyrin and free and esterified sterols
• Fixed oil, containing free fatty acids; mainly linoleic, linolenic &palmitic acids, alkanes
• Flavonoids, including rutin, quercitin and kaempferol etc
• Miscellaneous; phenolic acids, e.g. chlorogenic acid, pectin, sugars etc. Leaves
• Triterpenes similar to those found in the flowers
• Cyanogenetic glycosides, e.g. sambunigrin
• Flavonoids inchuding rutin and quercitin
• Miscellaneous, fatty acids, alkanes, tannins. The bark contains phytohaemagglutinins.

Actions: Bark: purgative, emetic, diuretic. Leaves: Externally emollient and vulnerary, internally as purgative, expectorant, diuretic and diaphoretic. Flowers: Diaphoretic, anti-catarrhal, anti-spasmodic. Berries: Diaphoretic, diuretic, laxative.

Indications: The Elder tree is a medicine chest by itself! The leaves are used for bruises, sprains, wounds and chilblains. It has been reported that Elder Leaves may be useful in anointment for tumours. Elder Flowers are ideal for the treatment of colds and influenza. They are indicated in any catarrhal inflammation of the upper respiratory tract such as hayfever and sinusitis. Catarrhal deafness responds well to Elder Flowers. Elder Berries have similar properties to the Flowers with the addition of their usefulness in rheumatism.

Priest & Priest tell say it is a "mild diffusive &relaxing diaphoretic with alterative properties, indicated for children subject to frequent febrile reactions. Relaxing to the eliminative organs, soothing to the nervous system and gently laxative." The indications are: Colds & `flu with dry, hot skin; chronic nasal catarrh or sinusitis; dry coryza; spasmodic croup; weakening night sweats; skin eruptions from metabolic disturbance; eczema; dermatitis.

Kings' Dispensatory describes the uses of a related species S.canadensis thus: "In warm infusion, Elder Flowers are diaphoretic &gently stimulant; in cold infusion they are diuretic, alterative & cooling, & may be used in all diseases requiring such action, as in hepatic derangements of children, erysipelas. The expressed juice of the berries evaporated to the consistence of a syrup is a valuable aperient and alterative; l ounce of it will purge. An infusion of the young leaf-buds is likewise purgative, and sometimes acts with violence. The flowers and expressed juice of the berries have been beneficially employed in scrofula, cutaneous diseases, syphilis, rheumatism. The inner greenbark is cathartic; and infusion of it in wine or cider, or the expressed juice, will purge moderately, in doses of from l/2 to l fluid ounce; large doses produce emesis; in small ones, it proves an efficient deobstruent, promoting all the fluid secretions, and is much used in dropsy, especially that following scarlatina, and other febrile and exanthematous diseases, as well as in many chronic diseases."

Combinations: For colds and fevers it may be used with Peppermint, Yarrow or Hyssop. For influenza combine it with Boneset. For catarrhal states mix it with Golden Rod.

Preparations & Dosage: Infusion: 1 cup of boiling water onto 2 teaspoonfuls of the dried or fresh blossoms and infuse for l0 minutes. Drink hot 3 times a day. Juice: boil fresh berries in water for 2 to 3 minutes, then express the juice. To preserve, bring to the boil with l part honey to l0 parts of juice. Take l glass diluted with hot water twice a day. Ointment: take 3 parts of fresh Elder Leaves and heat them with 6 parts of melted vaseline until the leaves are crisp. Strain and store. Tincture: take 2-4ml of the tincture (made from the flowers) three times a day.

Elecampane

© David L. Hoffmann B.Sc. (Hons), M.N.I.M.H.

Inula helenium
Compositae
Names: Yellow Starwort
Habitat: Indigenous to Europe and temperate Asia, naturalized in the USA, and cultivated widely in Europe and also China.
Collection: The rhizome should be unearthed between September and October. The large pieces should be cut before drying in the sun or artificially at a temperature of 50-70 degrees C.
Part Used: Rhizome

Constituents:

• Volatile oil, containing sesquiterpene lactones, main lyalamtolactone (= helenalin or elecampane camphor), isoalantolactone and their dihydro derivatives, alantic acid and azulene
• Inulin;
• Miscellaneous; sterols, resin etc.

Actions: Expectorant, anti-tussive, diaphoretic, hepatic, anti-microbial.

Indications: Elecampane is a specific for irritating bronchial coughs, especially in children. It may be used wherever there is copious catarrh formed e.g. in bronchitis or emphysema. This remedy shows the complex and integrated ways in which herbs work. The mucilage has are laxing effect accompanied by the stimulation of the essential oils. In this way expectoration is accompanied by a soothing action which in this herb is combined with an anti-bacterial effect. It may be used in asthma and bronchitic asthma. Elecampane has been used in the treatment of tuberculosis. The bitter principle makes it useful also to stimulate digestion and appetite.

Priest & Priest tell us that it is a "gently stimulating tonic expectorant for chronic catarrhal conditions: warming, strengthening and cleansing to pulmonary mucous membranes. Indicated for chronic pectoral states with excessive catarrhal expectoration and/or a tubercular diathesis." They give the following specific indications: Bronchial and gastriccatarrh, chronic bronchitis, tuberculosis, pneumoconiosis, silicosis, pertussis, emphysematous conditions, chronic cough in the elderly.

Ellingwood considered it to specifically "act directly upon the nutritive functions of the body. In general debility from protracted disease or from overwork, or from age, its influence is plainly apparent. It imparts tone to the digestive and respiratory organs and to the urinary tract." In addition he recommends it for the following patholgies: atonic conditions, night sweats, pulmonary tuberculosis, irritating cough, catarrhal discharges.

Kings' describes it thus: "Elecampane is an aromatic stimulant and tonic and is said to be expectorant, emmenagogue, diuretic, and diaphoretic. It is much used in chronic pulmonary affections, weakness of the digestive organs, hepatic torpor, atonic dyspepsia, with flatus, and internally and externally in tetter, itch, and other cutaneous diseases. The alcoholic extract, combined with powdered extract of Liquorice, Benzoic acid, Sanguinaria and morphine, forms a lozenge or pill very valuable in chronic catarrhal, bronchial, and all pulmonary irritations. One drop of the oil of Stillingia may be added to each lozenge for bronchial and laryngeal affections. Night-sweats are relieved by Inula, as are some cases of humid asthma, and by its tonic properties, it tends to sustain the strength of the patient in chronic disorders of the respiratory tract. Helenin is accredited with a fatal action upon the tubercle bacillus. Inula is somewhat slow in action, and should be used for quite a time to get its full action. That it is an important remedy in irritation of the trachea and bronchiae is now well established. It is adapted to cases with free and abundant expectoration, teasing cough and pain beneath the sternum, conditions frequent in la grippe and the severer forms of colds."

Combinations: Elecampane combines well with White Horehound, Coltsfoot, Pleurisy Root, Lungwort and Yarrow for respiratory problems.

Preparations & Dosage: Infusion: pour a cup of cold water onto l teaspoonful of the shredded root. Let stand for 8 to l0 hours. Heat up and take very hot three times a day.

Tincture: take l-2 ml of the tincture three times a day.

Eucalyptus

© David L. Hoffmann B.Sc. (Hons), M.N.I.M.H.

Eucalyptus globulus
Myrtaceae
Names: Blue Gum.
Habitat: Victoria and Tasmania in Australia, cultivated in USA and Southern Europe etc.
Collection:
Part Used: Leaves, and the oil distilled from them.

Constituents:

• Volatile oil, the major component of which is l, 8-cineole (=eucalyptol), 70-85%; with terpineole, [[alpha]]-pinene, p-cymene and small amounts of sesquiterpenes such as ledol, aromadendrene and viridoflorol; aldehydes, ketones and alcohols
• Polyphenolic acids; caffeic, ferulic, gallic, protocatechuic and others
• Flavonoids including eucalyptin, hyperoside and rutin.

Actions: Anti-microbial, anti-spasmodic, expectorant, stimulant, febrifuge.

Indications: King's American Dispensatory describes the uses this plant was put to by the eclectics. Here are some relevant quotes: "Eucalyptus globulus has for a long time been known as a remedy for intermittent fever among the natives of the countries of its origin. Aside from its alleged utility in intermitents, this agent has had other virtues attributed to it, as follows: The leaves and their preparations have been successfully used as a tonic and gently stimulating stomachic, in atonic dyspepsia, and in catarrh of the stomach and typhoid fever; also advised in mucous catarrhal affections generally; in pseudo-membranous laryngitis, in asthma, with profuse secretion, and in chronic bronchitis, with or without emphysema, and in whooping-cough; it has likewise proved efficient in chronic catarrh of the bladder, where the urine is high-colored, contains an abnormal amount of mucus, or, perhaps, some purulent matter, and micturation is attended with much pain. More recently it has been recommended as a diuretic in the treatment of dropsy. Both the leaves and the oil are excitants and deodorizers, and, as such, have been successfully employed as local applications in bronchial affections with fetid expectoration, in ozena, in fetid or profuse mucous discharges, in vaginal leucorrhoea, offensive lochial discharges, gonorrhoeal discharges, indolent, fetid wounds or ulcers, cancerous ulcerations, in septicemia, and in gangrene. The leaves may, in some cases, be applied alone, directly to the part, in form of cataplasm; or they may be combined with other articles to form a poultice. The oil may be applied of full strength, or diluted with some other agent. In throat and pulmonary maladies, a tincture diluted, or a medicated water, may be inhaled in the form of spray; if the oil be employed, it may be dropped on some cotton placed in a small tube, from which the vapor may be inhaled. As a deodorizer, the tincture or the oil may be sprinkled or sprayed upon the offensive body, or the atmosphere of an apartment may be frequently sprayed with the same. Externally applied, the oil gives relief in some forms of neuralgic and rheumatic pains. The leaves of Eucalyptus, made up into cigars or cigarettes, and smoked, have been advised to afford relief in bronchial catarrh, asthma, and other affections of the respiratory organs. The question has been asked, may not the small amount of benefit that might be derived from the minute proportion of oil remaining intact, be more than overcome, and even prove injurious, from the irritating action of the smoke and of the empyreumatic products. Eucalyptus honey, gathered by bees from Eucalyptus flowers, is quite active, and has been recommended for parasitic and putrescent conditions, gonorrhoea, fevers, and catarrhal diseases. It is sedative to the heart, actively diuretic, and increases the elimination of uric acid."

Combinations: The oil is often combined with Thymus.

Preparations & Dosage: An infusion may be made with 1-2 teaspoonfuls of the leaves to a cup of boiling water. Let infuse for 10-15 minutes. The dose of tincture is 1 ml. three times a day.

Eyebright

© David L. Hoffmann B.Sc. (Hons), M.N.I.M.H.

Euphrasia officinalis
Scrophulariaceae
Names:
Habitat: Meadows and grassy places in Britain and Europe.
Collection: Gather the whole plant whilst in bloom in late summer and dry it in an airy place.
Part Used: Dried aerial parts.

Constituents:

• Iridoid glycosides, including aucubin.
• Tannins, both condensed and hydrolysable gallic acid types
• Phenolic acids including caffeic and ferulic
• Volatile oil.
• Miscellaneous; an unidentified alkaloid, sterols, amino acids and choline.

Actions: Anti-catarrhal, astringent, anti-inflammatory.

Indications: Eyebright is an excellent remedy for the problems of mucous membranes. The combination of anti-inflammatory and astringent properties make it relevant in many conditions. Used internally it is a powerful anti-catarrhal and thus may be used in nasal catarrh, sinusitis and other congestive states. It is best known for its use in conditions of the eye, where it is helpful in acute or chronic inflammations, stinging and weeping eyes as well as over-sensitivity to light. Used as a compress externally in conjunction with internal use it valuable in conjunctivitis and blepharitis.

Priest & Priest tell us that it is a "mild stimulating astringent. Vaso-constrictor to vessels of nasal and conjuntival membranes. Specific for congestive conditions of the eyes with profuse lachrymation." They give the following specific indications: Catarrhal blepharitis, rhinitis, sinusitis and conjunctivitis. Hay fever, acute coryza, irritable sneezing and lachrymation.

Ellingwood considered it specific for "irritating and catarrhal disease; first of the upper portion of the respiratory tract, and afterwords of the mucous structures of the throat and bronchial tubes. It is more immediately beneficial if the discharge is thin and watery. `Snuffles' ininfants demands this remedy. It is specific to acute disorders of the nasal mucous membranes. Where there is watery discharge from these membranes, where there earache, or headache, and especially if the distress be across the eyes, in acute catarrhal affections, it has a direct influence upon the lachrymal apparatus." In addition he recommends it for the following patholgies: cough, hoarsness, catarrhal manifestations following measles, catarrhal conjunctivitis, catarrhal deafness, chronic nasal catarrh, acute coryza, influenza, blepharitis and conjunctivitis.

Combinations: In catarrhal conditions it combines well with Golden Rod, Elder Flower or Golden Seal. In allergic conditions where the eyes are effect edit may be combined with Ephedra. As an eye lotion it mixes with Golden Seal and distilled Witch Hazel.

Preparations & Dosage: Infusion: pour a cup of boiling water onto l teaspoonful of the dried herb and leave to infuse for 5-l0 minutes. This should be drunk three times a day. Compress: place a teaspoonful of the dried herb in half a litre (l pint) of water and boil for l0 minutes, let cool slightly. Moisten a compress (Cotton wool, gauze or muslin) in the luke warm liquid, wring out slightly and place over the eyes. Leave the compress in place for l5 minutes. Repeat several times a day. Tincture: take l-4 ml of the tincture three times a day.